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World Dev., 46, 3044, doi:10.1016/J.WORLDDEV.2012.12.017. Safriel, U., 2009: Deserts and desertification: Challenges but also opportunities. Combined impacts of desertification and climate change on socio-economic development in drylands are complex. This relationship corresponds to the Environmental Kuznets Curve, which posits that environmental degradation initially rises and subsequently falls with rising income (e.g., Stern 2017666). Springer International Publishing, Springer. Thus, the sensible heat (heat that causes the atmospheric temperature to rise) accounts for more of the surface net radiation than latent heat (evaporation) in these regions (Wang and Dickinson 2013455). Dust storms also impact crop yields by reducing the quantity of water available for irrigation; they can decrease the storage capacity of reservoirs by siltation, and block conveyance canals (Middleton 2017601; Middleton and Kang 2017602; Stefanski and Sivakumar 2009603). Changes in land use, water pumping and flow diversion have enhanced drying of wetlands and salinisation of freshwater aquifers in Israel (Inbar 2007445). Lal, R., 2004: Carbon Sequestration in Dryland Ecosystems. A monitoring and evaluation system has been defined, allowing nations to measure outcomes and to propose the necessary adjustments. Remote Sens. et al., 2017: CO2 exchange and evapotranspiration across Dryland ecosystems of south-western North America. 2010556). The problem with Italian politics until recently has been that no matter what you voted for, you end up with the same technocratic policies. Clim. Bennett,C.M.,I.G. Planet@Risk, 3, 6871, doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2006.01.021. Pietri's criticism of the short-range of EVs relative to fuel-driven cars falls into the same category. The puffins are trying to feed their young on butterfish instead, but baby puffins are unable to swallow the larger fish, so many are starving to death. Res., 3, 7785, doi:10.1016/j.iswcr.2015.06.008. Mach, T.E. Optimal adaptation strategies achieve multiple objectives. Lambin, E.F. et al., 2013: Estimating the worlds potentially available cropland using a bottom-up approach. J. Appl. Wessels, K.J., F. van den Bergh, and R.J. Scholes, 2012: Limits to detectability of land degradation by trend analysis of vegetation index data. Ecol. Berrahmouni, N., L. Laestadius, A. Martucci, D. Mollicone, C. Patriarca, and M. Sacande, 2016: Building Africas Great Green Wall: Restoring Degraded Drylands for Stronger and More Resilient Communities. In: Aeolian Process as Dust Storms in the Deserts of Central Asia and Kazakhstan [Issanova, G. and J. Abuduwaili (eds.)]. Will they pressure Turkey if they continue with the inspections? Grass Forage Sci., 62, 118126, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2494.2007.00575.x. 20141331; Nkonya et al. Zabaleta, A., M. Meaurio, E. Ruiz, and I. Antigedad, 2013: Simulation climate change impact on runoff and sediment yield in a small watershed in the Basque country, northern Spain. Glob. General Directorate of Combating Desertification and Erosion, Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs, Republic of Turkey. Environ. Environ. In terms of climate change mitigation, the contribution of rangelands, woodland and sub-humid dry forest (e.g., Miombo woodland in south-central Africa) is often undervalued due to relatively low carbon stocks per hectare. Pyke, and F.B. In: Desertification: Past, Current and Future Trends [Squires, V.R. Hertel, T.W., and D.B. Soil and Water Resources Research Institute Laboratory Agricultural Engineer, Konya, Turkey, pp. Sikder, M.J.U., and V. Higgins, 2017: Remittances and social resilience of migrant households in rural Bangladesh. 377412. In: Biological Soil Crusts: An Organizing Principle in Drylands [Weber, B., B. Bdel, and J. Belnap (eds.)]. During the "golden age" of museum-going, material cultures were used to show the Berrahmouni et al. Levy, S. MacCracken, P.R. Kissel, A.N. Greve, P., B. Orlowsky, B. Mueller, J. Sheffield, M. Reichstein, and S.I. Enck, 2016: Can citizen science enhance public understanding of science? 20172). Adv. Appl. The following three examples present lessons learnt from the soil erosion problems and measures to address them in different settings of Chile, Turkey and the Central Asian countries. Olwoch, M. Opondo, E.S. Gonzalez-Martin, C., N. Teigell-Perez, B. Valladares, and D.W. Griffin, 2014: The global dispersion of pathogenic microorganisms by dust storms and its relevance to agriculture. 291302. Sietz, D., M.K.B. Erosion refers to removal of soil by the physical forces of water, wind, or often caused by farming activities such as tillage (Ginoux et al. 2015). Analysing the World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies (WOCAT) database, a globally acknowledged reference database for SLM, Giger et al. Be careful what you wish for. 2006702; Diaz et al. Nutr. Recent reviews of the governance and implementation of IWM within the basin recognise that an integrated approach is needed and that a robust institutional, legal, political, operational, technical and support environment is crucial (Alba et al. Remote Sens., 146, 2237, doi:10.1016/J.ISPRSJPRS.2018.08.017. Bourguignon,F., andS.R. All-cause mortality associated with physical activity during leisure time, work, sports, and cycling to work, Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: urban land transport, Comparing environmental impacts for livestock products: a review of life cycle assessments, Food choices, health and environment: effects of cutting Europes meat and dairy intake, Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: food and agriculture. (2007) indicated that desertification was directly affecting 250 million people. Populations in most developing countries continue to rely on traditional biomass, including fuelwood, crop straws and livestock manure, for a major share of their energy needs, with the highest dependence in Sub-Saharan Africa (Amugune et al. Cerutti,H. Baral,S. Leonard, andC. Martius, 2017: Small Flame but No Fire: Wood Fuel in the (Intended) Nationally Determined Contributions of Countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. Maloney, and R.S. Hooten, 2017: Safari science: Assessing the reliability of citizen science data for wildlife surveys. 20131125). Total Environ., 576, 850857, doi:10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2016.10.036. Estrada, R.C. Women are usually excluded from local decision-making on actions regarding desertification and climate change. That observation does not appear to square with what is happening on the ground. Between 2004/2005 and 2012/2013, high-mountain oases of Al Jabal Al Akhdar in Oman lost almost all fruit and nut trees of temperate-zone origin, with the abundance of peaches, apricots, grapes, figs, pears, apples, and plums dropping by between 86% and 100% (Al-Kalbani et al. Mndez, M., and V. Magaa, 2010: Regional aspects of prolonged meteorological droughts over Mexico and Central America. 2000446; Liu and Tian 2010447; Zhao et al. Although it is impossible to cover all hotspots of desertification and on-the-ground actions from all dryland areas, these case studies present a more focused assessment of these five issues, which emerged as salient in the group discussions and several rounds of review of this chapter. 20161239) and Senegal (Sow et al. 20111511). Where will the DUP be after the elections? Ballard, andJ.W. Plant species located within these areas are characterised by high genetic diversity within populations (Martinez-Palacios et al. Monit. 201336), land productivity dynamics (Baskan et al. Tadesse, M.A., B.A. 20191676). 2016535). According to the International Disaster Database (EM-DAT), droughts affected more than 1.1 billion people between 1994 and 2013, with the recorded global economic damage of 787 billion USD (CRED 20151447), corresponding to an average of 41.4 billion USD per year. Int. Publication Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 248 pp. Remote Sens., 8, 948, doi:10.3390/rs8110948. 20111359). 20141753). Soil Use Manag., 24, 223234, doi:10.1111/j.1475-2743.2008.00169.x. 2018; Kaspari et al. Steady increases in the exposed and vulnerable populations are seen for increasing global mean temperatures. Observatoire du Sahara et du Sahel, 2013: La Surveillance environnementale dans le circum-Sahara: Synthse rgionale Ecologie (Algrie, Burkina Faso Kenya Mali Niger Sngal Tunisie) 2012, Observatoire du Sahara et du Sahel. 87113. Proc. eTopoi. COP27, in November, may force the issue, They are becoming more damaging, but not more frequent, The politician and former environment minister urges Brazilians to vote for a change of leader, The chirps of insects tell an important story, Rapidly melting glaciers could mean more such tragedies, La Nia and climate change combine to create a spate of extreme weather in 2022, Many parts of the ocean are being starved of oxygen. Erb,K.-H. et al., 2016: Livestock grazing, the neglected land use. Avian Biol., 38, 145184. Am. Acad. Mean greenhouse gas emissions (in kilograms of carbon dioxide equivalents per day) comparing diet types from 55 504 individuals in the EPIC-Oxford cohort study. Alados, 2018: Deserts do not advance, they are created: Land degradation and desertification in semi-arid environments in the Middle Atlas, Morocco. (2015)304 estimated that from 1984 to 2013, bare soils and agricultural lands increased by 18.8% and 89.7%, respectively, while woodland, gallery forest, tree savannahs, shrub savannahs and water bodies decreased by 18.8%, 19.4%, 4.8%, 45.2% and 31.2%, respectively. Desertification also tends to increase albedo, decreasing the energy available at the surface and associated surface temperatures, producing a negative feedback on climate change (high confidence). 478485. Res., 112, D20113, doi:10.1029/2007JD008861. Quat. In Fakara region in Niger, a 5% annual reduction in herbaceous yield between 1994 and 2006 was largely explained by changes in land use, grazing pressure and soil fertility (Hiernaux et al. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 238350. However, the long-term success of clearance and subsequent improved fire and grazing management remains to be evaluated, especially restoration back towards an original open grassland state. Koutroulis, A.G., 2019: Dryland changes under different levels of global warming. 2016863; Lin et al. Abbass,I., 2014: No retreat no surrender conflict for survival between Fulani pastoralists and farmers in Northern Nigeria. For example, intercropping maize and sorghum with Desmodium (an insect repellent forage legume) and Brachiaria (an insect trapping grass), which is being promoted in drylands of East Africa, led to a two-to-three-fold increase in maize production and an 80% decrease in stem boring insects (Khan et al. Seneviratne, A. Thomas, R. Warren, and G. Zhou, 2018: Impacts of 1.5C of Global Warming on Natural and Human Systems. Andela,N.,Y.Y. DOI: 10.5751/ES-03402-160303. Thus, aridity is different from drought, which is a temporary climatic event (Maliva and Missimer 201210). Awan,A.R., andK. Mahmood, 2017: Tree plantation in problem soils. Yang et al. 20131568). The agreement was due to expire after 120 days, so in mid-November. Nat. Abo-Ragab,S., Zaghloul,A.Q., 2017: Sand Dunes Movement and its Impact on Development Plans, Siwa Oasis. Stringer, andR. Thomas, 2011: Integrated land degradation monitoring and assessment: Horizontal knowledge management at the national and international levels. Pulhin,J. Barnett,G.D. Dabelko,G.K. Hovelsrud,M.Levy,.O. Thats led to more anticipation that evolutionary change might be able to play a role in rescuing speciesWith the right work and focus, this can become another tool in the conservation tool kit.. 2012877; Greece: Nastos et al. Glob. 2015627). Conserv.,4, 559571, doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2015.10.006. Camb., 12, 213228, doi:10.3197/096734006776680236. The second great challenge after the Green Revolution in India was the low productivity in the rain-fed and semi-arid regions where land degredation and drought were serious concerns. Liiri, L. Bjrnlund, M. Bowker, S. Christensen, H. Setl, and R.D. With less than 20 years of data, the trend analysis remains problematic with vegetation indices other than NDVI. Moscow justified its move by saying they can no longer guarantee safe passage of the ships after Ukraines drone attack on the Russian fleet in the port of Sevastopol last Saturday. Within the 15 countries, UNICEF estimates that at least 40 million children are severely nutrition insecure, meaning they are not receiving the bare minimum diverse diet they need to grow and develop in early childhood. This can occur through groundwater processes such as the vertical movement of salt to the surface causing salinisation, supply of near-surface soil moisture, and sustenance of groundwater dependent vegetation. 20111431; Cour 20011432; Dahiya 20121433). An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Acad. 441454. 2017691; Goudarzi et al. Since then, significant opportunities to advance the climate cause in the U.S. have been few and far between. Call it something else if you must. It is an important component of avoiding and reducing early degradation. These processes, coupled with ethnic differences, perceived security threats, and misunderstanding of pastoral rationality, have led to increasing marginalisation of pastoral communities and disruption of their economic and cultural structures (Elhadary 201470; Morton 201071). Indic., 15, 157170, doi:10.1016/J.ECOLIND.2011.09.012. de Vries, F.T., M.E. 20171248). Soil Ecol., 56, 19, doi:10.1016/J.APSOIL.2012.01.007. Front. The degree of soil erosion increases from south to north. Environ., 74, 291300, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.03.047. Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland, pp. Vlek, 2014: Socio-economic and biophysical determinants of land degradation in Vietnam: An integrated causal analysis at the national level. Cattaneo,C., andG. Peri, 2016: The migration response to increasing temperatures. J. 2016756) indicated that in the conditions of Baghdad, Iraq, one months exposure to weather reduced the efficiency of solar modules by 18.74% due to dust deposition. In addition, the Chinese government launched the Beijing and Tianjin Sandstorm Source Treatment Project (20012010), Returning Farmlands to Forest Project (2003present), and the Returning Grazing Land to Grassland Project (2003present) to combat desertification, and for adaptation and mitigation of climate change (State Forestry Administration of China 20151566; Wang 20141567; Wang et al. 20161346), while considering the interactions between actors and institutions at different levels of governance (Andersson and Ostrom 20081347; Carlisle and Gruby 20171349; McCord et al. Ramarao, M.V.S., J. Sanjay, R. Krishnan, M. Mujumdar, A. Bazaz, and A. Revi, 2018: On observed aridity changes over the semi-arid regions of India in a warming climate. Dev., 35, 13191334, doi:10.1007/s13593-015-0326-x. The most common definition for the drylands is based on defined thresholds of the AI (Figure 3.1; UNEP 1992216). Earths Futur., 6, 10971111, doi:10.1029/2018EF000878. A Wisconsin study found that increased efficiency and renewable generation in electrical power, designed to reduce carbon at low cost, could reduce statewide emissions of nitrogen oxides by 55% and sulfur dioxide by 59%.209 Regarding biofuels, if sugar cane, fast-growing tree species, and Miscanthus are used instead of corn, competition for food production could be eliminated, thus avoiding food price shocks especially affecting the poor.5. Dimobe,K.,A. Oudraogo,S. Soma,D. Goetze,S. Porembski, andA. Thiombiano, 2015: Identification of driving factors of land degradation and deforestation in the wildlife reserve of Bontioli (Burkina Faso, West Africa). Martin-Latry K, Goumy M-P, Latry P, et al. Simulated changes in biogenic VOC emissions and ozone formation from habitat expansion of Acer rubrum (red maple). Where Pietri goes wrong in our view, is what we might call the snapshot fallacy, or the tomorrow-I-am-sober fallacy. Asem,S.O., andW.Y. Food Sec., 10, 2128, doi:10.1016/J.GFS.2016.07.002. They found CO2 fertilisation to be the dominant effect globally, though climate and land-cover change were the dominant effects in various dryland locations. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Field, C.B., V.R. Estrada, R.C. Aladejana, O.O., A.T. Salami, and O.-I.O. Desertification is a process, not a state of the system, hence an absolute baseline is not required; however, every study uses a baseline defined by the start of their period of interest. It has also been reported that areas with high variability in precipitation tend to have lower livestock densities and that those societies that have a strong dependence on livestock that graze natural forage are especially affected (Sloat et al. Lee, H. Shimizu, Y. Gao, and G. Ding, 2004: Principles of sand dune fixation with straw checkerboard technology and its effects on the environment. 20151033; Short et al. Okin, and D.C. Peters, 2012: Landform influences on the resistance of grasslands to shrub encroachment, Northern Chihuahuan Desert, USA.J. J. Environ. Conversely, fire may promote plant invasions via several mechanisms (by reducing cover of competing vegetation, destroying native vegetation and clearing a path for invasive plants or creating favourable soil conditions) (Brooks et al. Reid, H., A. Bourne, H. Muller, K. Podvin, S. Scorgie, and V. Orindi, 2018: Chapter 16 A framework for assessing the effectiveness of ecosystem-based approaches to adaptation. 20121678; Bachelet et al. In: The End of Desertification? Indic. Clim. WGII AR5 concluded the impact of increases in heavy rainfall and temperature on soil erosion will be modulated by soil management practices, rainfall seasonality and land cover (Jimenez Cisneros et al. Ecohydrology, 1, 4358, doi:10.1002/eco.6. 2009555; Nardone et al. Comment. Rasmussen, and A. Reenberg, 2016: Environmental change in the Sahel: Reconciling contrasting evidence and interpretations. Chang. Price,T.OHiggins,M. Ahmed, andA. Abahussain, 2016: Integrated environmental assessment to explore water resources management in Al Jabal Al Akhdar, Sultanate of Oman. 20181262; Orr et al. MSU-RAS Institute of Soil Science, Moscow, Russia, 362 pp. Saha, V.D. 2012486). Agric., 51, 244263, doi:10.1017/S001447971400026X. Lahlaoi, H. et al., 2017: Desertification assessment using MEDALUS model in watershed Oued El Maleh, Morocco. 20131623; Hellmann et al. African J. Closas,A., andE. Rap, 2017: Solar-based groundwater pumping for irrigation: Sustainability, policies, and limitations. 201411). Ser. Kazmerski, 2018: Solar energy dust and soilingR&D progress: Literature review update for 2016. Lewis, and B. Ostendorf, 2012b: Buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris) as an invader and threat to biodiversity in arid environments: A review. Governance of Tenure Technical Guide No. About half (or about 1 in 3 overall) believe it will pose a serious threat in their lifetimes.135137 Compared with other wealthy nations,138,139 US residents generally see the issue as remote in time and space (eg, affecting the next generation and in developing countries) and of low priority, well behind such concerns as jobs, health care, and even other environmental issues.140, Researchers have segmented the US population along a spectrum ranging from alarmed ( 16%) to dismissive ( 10%), according to climate change belief, concern, and motivation.141 Many factors shape views of climate change: economic trends,142 cultural norms,143 beliefs of family and friends,144 and values and political ideology,145147 often exercised through cognitive shortcuts called heuristics that bypass evidence.148,149 Media coverage matters.150156 Deliberate, well-funded attempts to deceive the public and sow confusion have succeeded.152,157160 Despite robust scientific consensus on climate change,2,3,161 there is widespread perception that scientists disagree, which in turn fuels public disbelief.162 In addition, many people are unduly influenced by personal experience, such as short-term weather perturbations. Lamers,M. Bekchanov,N. Djanibekov,J. Franz-Vasdeki,J. Ruzimov, andC. Martius, 2013: Options and constraints for crop diversification: Acase study in sustainable agriculture in Uzbekistan. Over the past several decades, air temperature and the rainfall increased in the arid and hyper-arid region of Northwest China (Chen et al. Divers. An example is the Great Basin region in western North America where over 20% of ecosystems have been significantly altered by invasive plants, especially exotic annual grasses and invasive conifers, resulting in loss of biodiversity. Middleton, N., and U. Kang, 2017: Sand and dust storms: Impact mitigation. Additionally, dust storms favour the dispersion of microbial and plant species, which can make local endemic species vulnerable to extinction and promote the invasion of plant and microbial species (Asem and Roy 2010605; Womack et al. Drought losses in the agricultural sector alone in developing countries were estimated to equal 29 billion USD between 2005 and 2015 (FAO 2018). Renew. van Oijen, M., G. Bellocchi, and M. Hglind, 2018: Effects of climate change on grassland biodiversity and productivity: The need for a diversity of models. et al., 2008: The impact of livestock grazing on soils and vegetation around settlements in Southeast Kazakhstan. Wessels, K.J., S.D. Complex., 2, 16, doi:10.1186/s40852-016-0038-8. 2008999). Kassam,J. Tourrand and Boone,R.B. 13271370. Change, 54, 893925, doi:10.1086/503584. Poorer people cannot afford the financial outlay of an EV, and may find their mobility reduced as a result of diesel bans. The inappropriate use of the theory of incentives with respect to the REDD mechanism. For example, drylands of eastern Africa currently face growing encroachment of invasive plant species, such as Prosopis juliflora (Ayanu et al. (2015)961 project that without rapid and inclusive progress on eradicating multidimensional poverty, climate change could increase the number of the people living in poverty by between 35 million and 122 million people by 2030. J. Econ. 20131038), but the two principal factors that pastoralists can manage are grazing and fire, by altering their frequency, type and intensity. The majority of research on the climate changepollution connections has focused on ground-level ozone and particulate matter,54 both of which vary with the weather.55 Even in the face of improving emissions, a climate penalty or temperature-related worsening of pollution may be anticipated.56. The highest numbers of affected people were in South and East Asia, North Africa and the Middle East (low confidence). At the beginning of the projects, some problems appeared in some places due to lack of enough knowledge and experience (low confidence) (Jiang 20161578; Wang et al. (2013), estimates that each year there is a loss of 7 t ha1 of soils due to erosion. Eng., 38, 19591971, doi:10.1007/s13369-013-0565-6. 20121191). 2003537). Biazin,B.,G. Sterk,M. Temesgen,A. Abdulkedir, andL. Stroosnijder, 2012: Rainwater harvesting and management in rainfed agricultural systems in Sub-Saharan Africa A review. Clim. Energy Policy, 104, 3337, doi:10.1016/J.ENPOL.2017.01.035. R. Soc. Abed,R.M.M.,A. Ramette,V. Hbner,P. de Deckker, andD. de Beer, 2012: Microbial diversity of eolian dust sources from saline lake sediments and biological soil crusts in arid southern Australia. Sustainable land management practices also support biodiversity through habitat protection. The Green Dam did not have the desired effects. While renewable groundwater resources could help increase the share of irrigated land to 20.548.6% of croplands in the region (Altchenko and Villholth 20151403). Abdu,N. andL. Robinson, 2017: Community-Based Rangeland Management in Dirre Rangeland Unit: Taking Successes in Land Restoration to Scale Project. Geoforum, 39, 19511964, doi:10.1016/J.GEOFORUM.2008.07.010. 20151597) shows that 0.3 Mha of forest plantation have been planted, which represents 10% of the project area. 20071190). The changes in drylands in Asia over the period 19822011 were mixed, with some areas experiencing vegetation improvement while others showed reduced vegetation (Miao et al. Int. Zare, M., A.A. Nazari Samani, M. Mohammady, T. Teimurian, and J. Bazrafshan, 2016: Simulation of soil erosion under the influence of climate change scenarios. Farage,P.K.,J. Ardo,L. Olsson,E.A. Int. Routledge, India, pp. van Vuuren, D.P., O.E. 2017321). Sawadogo, 2016: Community participation in decentralized management of natural resources in the southern region of Mali. Adetoro, 2018: Hydrological responses to land degradation in the Northwest Benin Owena River Basin, Nigeria. Meijer, E., E. Querner, and H. Boesveld, 2013: Impact of Farm Dams on River Flows; A Case Study in the Limpopo River Basin, Southern Africa. Policy, 92, 182190, doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2018.11.017. In: Climate Change 1992: The Supplementary Report to IPCC Scientific Assessment [Houghton, J.T., B.A. Rural Stud., 47, 533541, doi:10.1016/J.JRURSTUD.2016.06.020. Thornton, P.K., J. van de Steeg, A. Notenbaert, and M. Herrero, 2009: The impacts of climate change on livestock and livestock systems in developing countries: A review of what we know and what we need to know. Delehanty, 2015: Nest-site selection and reproductive success of greater sage-grouse in a fire-affected habitat of north-western Nevada. Geogr., 86, 208219, doi:10.1016/J.APGEOG.2017.07.003. 2015). Agric. Geophys. There are abundant examples of how indigenous and local knowledge, which are an important part of broader agroecological knowledge (Altieri 20181157), have allowed livelihood systems in drylands to be maintained despite environmental constraints. Wang et al. Public Health, 148, 109116, doi:10.1016/J.PUHE.2017.03.009. Kerry noted that China constitutes 30% of all greenhouse gas emissions. 2014755). Sci.,6, 791805. Cambridge University Press, New York, USA. The main feedback pathways discussed throughout Section 3.3 are summarised in Figure 3.8. 2011700). 20161198). Agric. Sustainable development of drylands under these socio-economic and environmental (climate change, desertification) conditions will also depend on the ability of dryland agricultural households to diversify their livelihoods sources (Boserup 19651209; Safriel and Adeel 20081210). 2016746; Maliszewski et al. Forty-three million people in the United States inhabit areas that exceed EPA health-based standards for fine particulate matter,61 and 89% of the worlds population live in areas exceeding the World Health Organization air quality guideline of 10 g/m.3 Globally, 32% of the population live in areas exceeding 35 g/mm3, especially in East and South Asia.62 Fine particulate matter exposure is highest in low-income countries, where regulations to limit particulate emissions are lacking or unenforced. 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